12 January 2011

Sports nutrition


Protein

Protein milkshakes, made from protein powder (center) and milk (left), are a common bodybuilding supplement.
Protein is an important component of every cell in the body. Hair and nails are mostly made of protein. The body uses protein to build and repair tissues. In addition, protein is used to make hormones and other chemicals in the body. Protein is also an important building block of bones, muscles, cartilage, skin, and blood.
The protein requirement for each individual differs, as do opinions about whether and to what extent physically active people require more protein. The 2005 Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), aimed at the general healthy adult population, provide for an intake of 0.8 - 1 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight (according to the BMI formula), with the review panel stating that "no additional dietary protein is suggested for healthy adults undertaking resistance or endurance exercise".[53] Conversely, Di Pasquale (2008), citing recent studies, recommends a minimum protein intake of 2.2 g/kg "for anyone involved in competitive or intense recreational sports who wants to maximize lean body mass but does not wish to gain weight".[54]

[edit]Water

Water is one of the most important nutrients in the sports diet. It helps eliminate food waste products in the body, regulates body temperature during activity and helps with digestion. Maintaining hydration during periods of physical exertion is key to peak performance. While drinking too much water during activities can lead to physical discomfort, dehydration in excess of 2% of body mass (by weight) markedly hinders athletic performance.[55] Additional carbohydrates and protein before, during, and after exercise increase time to exhaustion as well as speed recovery. The amount of water needed is based on work performed, lean body mass, and environmental factors, especially ambient temperature and humidity.

[edit]Carbohydrates

The main fuel used by the body during exercise is carbohydrates, which are stored in muscle as glycogen—a form of sugar. During exercise, muscle glycogen reserves can be used up, especially when activities last longer than 90 min. Because the amount of glycogen stored in the body is limited, it is important for athletes to replace glycogen by consuming a diet high in carbohydrates. Meeting energy needs can help improve performance during the sport, as well as improve overall strength and endurance.
There are different kinds of carbohydrates—simple or refined, and unrefined. A typical American consumes about 50% of their carbohydrates as simple sugars, which are added to foods as opposed to sugars that come naturally in fruits and vegetables. These simple sugars come in large amounts in sodas and fast food. Over the course of a year, the average American consumes 54 gallons of soft drinks, which contain the highest amount of added sugars.[56] Even though carbohydrates are necessary for humans to function, they are not all equally healthful. When machinery has been used to remove bits of high fiber, the carbohydrates are refined. These are the carbohydrates found in white bread and fast food.[57]

[edit]Malnutrition

Main article: Malnutrition
Malnutrition refers to insufficient, excessive, or imbalanced consumption of nutrients.[citation needed] In developed countries, the diseases of malnutrition are most often associated with nutritional imbalances or excessive consumption.[citation needed] Although there are more people in the world who are malnourished due to excessive consumption, according to the United Nations World Health Organization, the real challenge in developing nations today, more than starvation, is combating insufficient nutrition — the lack of nutrients necessary for the growth and maintenance of vital functions.[citation needed]

[edit]Illnesses caused by improper nutrient consumption

NutrientsDeficiencyExcess
Macronutrients
CaloriesStarvation, MarasmusObesity, diabetes mellitus, Cardiovascular disease
Simple carbohydratesKetoacidosis (in diabetics and some other groups)diabetes mellitus, Obesity, Cardiovascular disease
Complex carbohydratesKetoacidosis (in diabetics and some other groups)Obesity, Cardiovascular disease (high glycemic index foods)
ProteinkwashiorkorRabbit starvation, Ketoacidosis (in diabetics)
Saturated fatPossible essential fatty acid deficiencyObesity[citation needed], Cardiovascular Disease[citation needed]
Trans fatnoneObesity, Cardiovascular Disease
Unsaturated fatfat-soluble vitamin deficiency, EFA deficiencyObesity[citation needed], Cardiovascular disease[citation needed]
Micronutrients
Vitamin AXerophthalmia and Night BlindnessHypervitaminosis A (cirrhosis, hair loss)
Vitamin B1Beri-Beri
Vitamin B2Skin and Corneal Lesions
NiacinPellagradyspepsia, cardiac arrhythmias, birth defects
Vitamin B12Pernicious Anemia
Vitamin CScurvydiarrhea causing dehydration
Vitamin DRicketsHypervitaminosis D (dehydration, vomiting, constipation)
Vitamin Eneurological diseaseHypervitaminosis E (anticoagulant: excessive bleeding)
Vitamin KHemorrhage
Omega 3 FatsCardiovascular DiseaseBleeding, Hemorrhages, Hemorrhagic stroke, reduced glycemic control among diabetics
Omega 6 FatsnoneCardiovascular Disease, Cancer
CholesterolnoneCardiovascular Disease[citation needed]
Macrominerals
CalciumOsteoporosis, tetany, carpopedal spasm, laryngospasm,cardiac arrhythmiasFatigue, depression, confusion, nausea, vomiting, constipation, pancreatitis,increased urination, kidney stones
MagnesiumHypertensionWeakness, nausea, vomiting, impaired breathing, and hypotension
PotassiumHypokalemia, cardiac arrhythmiasHyperkalemia, palpitations
SodiumhyponatremiaHypernatremia, hypertension[citation needed]
Trace minerals
IronAnemiaCirrhosis, heart disease
IodineGoiter, hypothyroidismIodine Toxicity, Iodism , (goiter, hypothyroidism)[citation needed]

[edit]Mental agility

Main article: Nootropic
Research indicates that improving the awareness of nutritious meal choices and establishing long-term habits of healthy eating have a positive effect on cognitive and spatial memory capacity, potentially increasing a student's potential to process and retain academic information.[citation needed]
Some organizations have begun working with teachers, policymakers, and managed foodservice contractors to mandate improved nutritional content and increased nutritional resources in school cafeterias from primary to university level institutions. Health and nutrition have been proven to have close links with overall educational success.[58] Currently, less than 10% of American college students report that they eat the recommended five servings of fruit and vegetables daily.[59]Better nutrition has been shown to have an impact on both cognitive and spatial memory performance; a study showed those with higher blood sugar levels performed better on certain memory tests.[60] In another study, those who consumed yogurt performed better on thinking tasks when compared to those who consumed caffeine free diet soda or confections.[61] Nutritional deficiencies have been shown to have a negative effect on learning behavior in mice as far back as 1951.[62]
"Better learning performance is associated with diet induced effects on learning and memory ability".[63]
The "nutrition-learning nexus" demonstrates the correlation between diet and learning and has application in a higher education setting.
"We find that better nourished children perform significantly better in school, partly because they enter school earlier and thus have more time to learn but mostly because of greater learning productivity per year of schooling."[64]
91% of college students feel that they are in good health while only 7% eat their recommended daily allowance of fruits and vegetables.[59]
Nutritional education is an effective and workable model in a higher education setting.[65][66]
More "engaged" learning models that encompass nutrition is an idea that is picking up steam at all levels of the learning cycle.[67]
There is limited research available that directly links a student's Grade Point Average (G.P.A.) to their overall nutritional health. Additional substantive data is needed to prove that overall intellectual health is closely linked to a person's diet, rather than just another correlation fallacy.

[edit]Mental disorders

Nutritional supplement treatment may be appropriate for major depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and obsessive compulsive disorder, the four most common mental disorders in developed countries.[68] Supplements that have been studied most for mood elevation and stabilization include eicosapentaenoic acidand docosahexaenoic acid (each of which are an omega-3 fatty acid contained in fish oil, but not in flaxseed oil), vitamin B12, folic acid, and inositol.[citation needed]

[edit]Cancer

Cancer is now common in developing countries. According to a study by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, "In the developing world, cancers of the liver, stomach and esophagus were more common, often linked to consumption of carcinogenic preserved foods, such as smoked or salted food, and parasitic infections that attack organs." Lung cancer rates are rising rapidly in poorer nations because of increased use of tobacco. Developed countries "tended to have cancers linked to affluence or a 'Western lifestyle' — cancers of the colon, rectum, breast and prostate — that can be caused by obesity, lack of exercise, diet and age."[69]

[edit]Metabolic syndrome

Several lines of evidence indicate lifestyle-induced hyperinsulinemia and reduced insulin function (i.e. insulin resistance) as a decisive factor in many disease states. For example, hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance are strongly linked to chronic inflammation, which in turn is strongly linked to a variety of adverse developments such as arterial microinjuries and clot formation (i.e. heart disease) and exaggerated cell division (i.e. cancer).[citation needed] Hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance (the so-called metabolic syndrome) are characterized by a combination of abdominal obesity, elevated blood sugar, elevated blood pressure, elevated blood triglycerides, and reduced HDL cholesterol. The negative impact of hyperinsulinemia on prostaglandin PGE1/PGE2 balance may be significant.[citation needed]
The state of obesity clearly contributes to insulin resistance, which in turn can cause type 2 diabetes. Virtually all obese and most type 2 diabetic individuals have marked insulin resistance. Although the association between overweight and insulin resistance is clear, the exact (likely multifarious) causes of insulin resistance remain less clear. Importantly, it has been demonstrated that appropriate exercise, more regular food intake and reducing glycemic load (see below) all can reverse insulin resistance in overweight individuals (and thereby lower blood sugar levels in those who have type 2 diabetes).[citation needed]
Obesity can unfavourably alter hormonal and metabolic status via resistance to the hormone leptin, and a vicious cycle may occur in which insulin/leptin resistance and obesity aggravate one another. The vicious cycle is putatively fuelled by continuously high insulin/leptin stimulation and fat storage, as a result of high intake of strongly insulin/leptin stimulating foods and energy. Both insulin and leptin normally function as satiety signals to the hypothalamus in the brain; however, insulin/leptin resistance may reduce this signal and therefore allow continued overfeeding despite large body fat stores.[citation needed] In addition, reduced leptin signalling to the brain may reduce leptin's normal effect to maintain an appropriately high metabolic rate.
There is a debate about how and to what extent different dietary factors— such as intake of processed carbohydrates, total protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake, intake of saturated and trans fatty acids, and low intake of vitamins/minerals—contribute to the development of insulin and leptin resistance. In any case, analogous to the way modern man-made pollution may potentially overwhelm the environment's ability to maintain homeostasis, the recent explosive introduction of highglycemic index and processed foods into the human diet may potentially overwhelm the body's ability to maintain homeostasis and health (as evidenced by the metabolic syndrome epidemic).

[edit]Hyponatremia

Excess water intake, without replenishment of sodium and potassium salts, leads to hyponatremia, which can further lead to water intoxication at more dangerous levels. A well-publicized case occurred in 2007, when Jennifer Strange died while participating in a water-drinking contest.[70] More usually, the condition occurs in long-distance endurance events (such as marathon or triathlon competition and training) and causes gradual mental dulling, headache, drowsiness, weakness, and confusion; extreme cases may result in coma, convulsions, and death. The primary damage comes from swelling of the brain, caused by increased osmosis as blood salinity decreases.

[edit]Antinutrient

Main article: Antinutrient
Antinutrients are natural or synthetic compounds that interfere with the absorption of nutrients. Nutrition studies focus on antinutrients commonly found in food sources and beverages.

[edit]Processed foods

Main article: Food processing
Since the Industrial Revolution some two hundred years ago, the food processing industry has invented many technologies that both help keep foods fresh longer and alter the fresh state of food as they appear in nature. Cooling is the primary technology used to maintain freshness, whereas many more technologies have been invented to allow foods to last longer without becoming spoiled. These latter technologies include pasteurisation, autoclavation, drying, salting, and separation of various components, all of which appear to alter the original nutritional contents of food. Pasteurisation and autoclavation (heating techniques) have no doubt improved the safety of many common foods, preventing epidemics of bacterial infection. But some of the (new) food processing technologies undoubtedly have downfalls as well.[citation needed]
Modern separation techniques such as milling, centrifugation, and pressing have enabled concentration of particular components of food, yielding flour, oils, juices and so on, and even separate fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. Inevitably, such large scale concentration changes the nutritional content of food, saving certain nutrients while removing others. Heating techniques may also reduce food's content of many heat-labile nutrients such as certain vitamins and phytochemicals, and possibly other yet to be discovered substances.[71] Because of reduced nutritional value, processed foods are often 'enriched' or 'fortified' with some of the most critical nutrients (usually certain vitamins) that were lost during processing. Nonetheless, processed foods tend to have an inferior nutritional profile compared to whole, fresh foods, regarding content of both sugar and high GI starches, potassium/sodium, vitamins, fiber, and of intact, unoxidized (essential) fatty acids. In addition, processed foods often contain potentially harmful substances such as oxidized fats and trans fatty acids.
A dramatic example of the effect of food processing on a population's health is the history of epidemics of beri-beri in people subsisting on polished rice. Removing the outer layer of rice by polishing it removes with it the essential vitamin thiamine, causing beri-beri.[citation needed] Another example is the development of scurvyamong infants in the late 19th century in the United States. It turned out that the vast majority of sufferers were being fed milk that had been heat-treated (as suggested by Pasteur) to control bacterial disease. Pasteurisation was effective against bacteria, but it destroyed the vitamin C.[citation needed]
As mentioned, lifestyle- and obesity-related diseases are becoming increasingly prevalent all around the world. There is little doubt that the increasingly widespread application of some modern food processing technologies has contributed to this development.[citation needed] The food processing industry is a major part of modern economy, and as such it is influential in political decisions (e.g. nutritional recommendations, agricultural subsidising). In any known profit-driven economy, health considerations are hardly a priority; effective production of cheap foods with a long shelf-life is more the trend. In general, whole, fresh foods have a relatively short shelf-life and are less profitable to produce and sell than are more processed foods. Thus, the consumer is left with the choice between more expensive, but nutritionally superior, whole, fresh foods, and cheap, usually nutritionally inferior, processed foods. Because processed foods are often cheaper, more convenient (in both purchasing, storage, and preparation), and more available, the consumption of nutritionally inferior foods has been increasing throughout the world along with many nutrition-related health complications.[72]

[edit]See also

Food portal
Health and fitness portal
Main article: Outline of nutrition
Balanced Eating:
Biology:
Dangers of poor nutrition
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Related topics
Main article: Health

[edit]Further reading

  • Curley, S., and Mark (1990). The Natural Guide to Good Health, Lafayette, Louisiana, Supreme Publishing
  • Galdston, I. (1960). Human Nutrition Historic and Scientific. New York: International Universities Press.
  • Mahan, L.K. and Escott-Stump, S. eds. (2000). Krause's Food, Nutrition, and Diet Therapy (10th ed.). Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Harcourt Brace. ISBN 0-7216-7904-8.
  • Thiollet, J.-P. (2001). Vitamines & minéraux. Paris: Anagramme.
  • Walter C. Willett and Meir J. Stampfer (January 2003). "Rebuilding the Food Pyramid". Scientific American 288 (1): 64–71. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0103-64. PMID 12506426.
  • The World's Healthiest Foods

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